II. What’s rhetoric?
1. Some definitions of rhetoric from western books:
1) Rhetoric is the art of using words in speaking or writing so as to persuade or influence others.
(The World Book Dictionary)
2) Rhetoric is the art of effectively using language in speech or writing, including the use of figures of speech.
(Random House Webster’s College Dictionary)
3) Rhetoric is the theory of informative and persuasive discourse.
(D. C. Bryant: Rhetoric: Its Function and Scope)
4) Rhetoric is a kind of art which deals with how to manipulate language effectively.
(C. Brooks and E. P. Warren: Modern Rhetoric)
5) What rhetoric concerns is how to make an effective choice between two synonymous expressions.
(Martin Steinmann: New Rhetoric)
6) Rhetoric should study the misunderstanding in human communication and find a solution to it.
(I. A. Richards: The Philosophy of Rhetoric
Some definitions of rhetoric from Chinese books:
1)修辞:修饰文字、词句,运用各种表现形式,使语言表达得准确、鲜明而生动有力。
——(《现代汉语词典》)
2)修辞:依据题旨情境,运用各种语文材料、各种表现手法,恰当地表现写、说者所要表达的内容的一切活动。
——(《辞海》)
3)修辞不过是调整语辞,使达意传情能够适切的一种努力。
——(陈望道《修辞学发凡》)
4)修辞是为了有效地表达意旨、交流思想而适应现实语境,利用民族语言各因素以美化语言。
——(张弓《现代汉语修辞学》)
5)修辞是指最有效地运用语言,使语言很好地表达思想感情的一种技巧。研究这种技巧的学问,就叫修辞学。换言之,修辞学是以修辞的规律、方法和语言手段的表现为研究对象的科学。
——(北京大学语言学教研室《语言学名词解释》)
6)修辞:通过对语言材料的选择、调整、修饰,使语言美化,更好的交流思想,表情达意。所谓“调整”,主要指依据题旨情境的需要,对词语、句式、段落篇章作恰当的选择和安排;所谓“修饰”,主要指恰当地选择一些修辞手段、修辞方法,增强语言表达的艺术效能。调整的目的,就是要求语言准确、鲜明,没有丝毫的模糊,也没有丝毫的歧义,使人家清楚、明白。修辞学就是研究如何提高语言表达艺术效果的规律的科学。修辞学是一定的历史范畴的产物,它体现着一定历史阶段上的语言和人的关系,语言和思维的关系,语言和艺术的关系,是一门人际关系的学科。
——(杨鸿儒《当代中国修辞学》)
In a word, rhetoric is the art of using language effectively.
2. Object of Rhetoric
1) Object of Rhetoric
Rhetoric takes language as its object. It studies pronunciation, word choice, and syntactic arrangement from functional perspective to see how to apply these language materials to specific situation or purpose so as to not only express clearly but also achieve the best effect.
2) Relationship among grammar, logic and rhetoric.
Grammar is a very important part of a language. It decides the “correctness” of language use. It’s the basis for people to express themselves. Logic is also very important. It checks the “reasonableness” of language use. Then comes rhetoric, another important part of a language. It deals with the “effectiveness” and aesthetics of language use.
Rhetoric is closely related to grammar and also based on grammar. To be grammatically correct is fundamental to writing, but that is not enough. Basic rhetorical requirements must be met. Francis Christensen, an American rhetorician, once said,
“Grammar maps out the possible; rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable and effective.”
(语法管语言“通顺不通顺”;修辞管语言“优美不优美”。)
Here are some examples to show the relationship among grammar, logic and rhetoric:
1a. I’ve taken more than two hours to write this short letter, but I know it’s written very poorly. I hope you will answer it and guide me to study English.
2a. Because Huang Ming, one of my roommates, had his tape recorder stolen, I became a thief.
3a. While my father, who came back from the south with a suitcase, was getting through the gate, my 7-year-old brother ran very quickly from the sitting room to greet him.
Compare:
1b. It has taken me more than two hours to write this short letter, but I know it’s written very poorly. I hope you will answer it and guide me in English studies.
2b. Huang Ming, one of my roommates, had his tape recorder stolen, and he doubted if I was the thief.
3b. While my father, who came back from the south with a suitcase, was getting through the gate, my 7-year-old brother flew from the sitting room to greet him.
台湾修辞大师沈谦(1998:3)把语言文辞分为四个层次:第一个层次是“拙”,即“辞不达意,表现拙劣”;第二个层次是“通”,即“说话条理清楚,文章写得通顺妥帖”;第三个层次是“巧”,即“在文辞清通之余,再求文辞灵动巧妙,精彩鲜活,新颖别致,有情有趣,耐人寻味”;第四个层次是“朴”,即“语言文辞达到第三层次的巧妙生动的地步,固然逸趣横生,引人瞩目,但并非最高的意境,真正最高境界应该是第四层的朴质真醇,自然高妙”。
3. Content of modern rhetoric
1) There are two main rhetorical trends in contemporary western culture:
a.Stylistics, which is associated with two aspects of writing:
the various registers like scientific and technical writing, business writing and journalism.
the stylistic variants like literary stylistics, functional stylistics, etc.
b.Rhetoric, which is chiefly concerned with techniques of how to influence the audience:
the functions and effects of different language symbols in communication activities;
measures to promote mutual understanding and to affect the emotions of the audience;
skills to handle persuasion and arguments.
2) Specifically speaking, rhetoric consists of two basic aspects:
a.Communicative Rhetoric(交际修辞学), which emphasizes the choice of words and phrases, and selection of sentence patterns, organizing paragraphs and whole pieces of writing in such a way that ideas are expressed most clearly, most accurately and most appropriately and the best results are achieved in communication.
b. Aesthetic Rhetoric(美学修辞学), which stresses the vividness and gracefulness in expressing one’s ideas by artistic approaches like the use of figures of speech or tropes so as to increase the emotional appeal of one’s speech or writing.