Part V 完整的作文
写作课的根本目的是培养学生撰写完整作文的能力。写作课一般要求学生撰写500至1000字的短文,内容涉及个人的生活、学习、经历以及对感兴趣的问题所持的观点。本部分主要教学生学习写作描写文、记叙文、说明文和议论文四大类文章。
1.撰写作文的步骤
A.总体规划
在动笔前应做好充分的准备。写作犹如盖房,建筑工人通常在动工前手头都有蓝图并准备好了足够的材料。习作者也应事先有个规划,同时要收集足够的资料,然后在下笔。
有了写作题目后,学生应首先考虑与题目有关的各个方面,随想随记,不必在意先后次序。与此同时,还要想想文章选什么题目为好。作文的主题即其主要观点或中心思想,是列举事实后所得出的结论。主题确定后,应重新审查列好的清单,删去与主题无关或意义不大的内容,然后把剩下的按逻辑顺序重新排列,写出一个提纲。
For example:
Title: The School Library
A large number of useful books
All kinds of dictionaries and reference books
The reading room spacious and quiet
Newspapers and magazines
The librarians patient and helpful
Closed on Sundays and holidays
Very crowded in the evening
Students leave books on chairs to reserve seats
Very few newspapers from abroad
Students are not allowed to take schoolbags to into the First Reading-Room
Seniors would not be able to write their graduation papers without using the library
Teachers go to the library frequently
The thesis of the essay may be:
(1) The library is a nice place to work in.
(2) The library plays a very important part in a student’s life.
(3) The work of the library needs improvement.
If we choose the second one as the thesis, we may write an outline as follows:
Title: The School Library
The thesis: The library plays a very important part in a student’s life.
The outline:
(1) A student has to borrow books from the library.
A. He needs reference books for his elective courses.
B. He may want to read novels, stories and plays.
(2) He reads newspapers and magazines in the library.
A. Many new magazines are on display in the First Reading-Room.
B. There are newspapers from all provinces.
C. Back numbers may be borrowed at the counter.
(3) He needs the library all the more in his junior and senior years.
A. The library provides him with books for his research.
B. He would not be able to write his graduation paper without using the library.
① Types of outline
An outline like the above is called a sentence outline, for it is made up of sentences. We see that the controlling idea or thesis is subdivided into smaller parts. Roman and Arabic numerals or letters of the alphabet are generally used to number and order ideas:
Thesis (controlling idea)
I. Introduction
II. Main Idea
A. Sub-idea
B. Sub-idea
1. Supporting detail
2. Supporting detail
a. Fact 1
b. Fact 2
III. Main idea
A. Sub-idea
1. Supporting detail
2. Supporting detail
B. Sub-idea
C. Sub-idea
IV. Conclusion
There is another kind of outline called the topic outline. A topic outline consists of nouns and their modifiers, or their equivalents, that is, gerund phrases or infinitive phrases. A topic outline for “Neighbors Are Dearer than Distant Relatives” may be written like this:
Topic: Neighbors Are Dearer than Distant Relatives/Something I Regret to This Day
Thesis: I am sorry to see my neighbors move away and regret having lost Lili’s friendship.
Outline:
I. My neighbors getting ready to move
II. My neighbors being a family of three
A. Aunt Wang, “head” of the family
1. A good cook
2. A good dressmaker
3. A peasant woman
B. Uncle Fan
1. A typical peasant
2. …
C. Their daughter Lili
1. A friend of mine
2. A good athlete
3. …
III. My loss of Lili’s friendship
A. The cause
B. The consequence
IV. My regrets and the lesson I have learned.
Before writing a paper, we may prepare either a topic outline or a sentence outline. A topic outline is brief and clear, and it gives the reader an instant overview of the entire paper. A sentence outline, on the other hand, provides a more detailed plan of the paper. It may take us less time to write a topic outline, but we may spend more time developing it into a paper; while spending more time working out a sentence outline, we sometimes find the paper almost half done after the detailed plan is written. For a short paper, a topic outline is often good enough, but for a long paper, it is perhaps better if we prepare a sentence outline.
② Rules for writing outlines
If we examine closely the two outlines above, we may see that they follow these rules:
(1) If there is a major point marked “I”, there must be at least another marked “II”; if there is an “A”, there must be a “B”, and so on.
(2) A topic outline is written in noun phrases, and a sentence outline, in sentences. Sentences and phrases are not used together in the same outline.
(3) Parallel structures are used for the headings of the same rank. Subheads of like rank are of equal importance and related to the heading and arranged in logical order.
(4) The thesis is a complete declarative sentence, usually in the affirmative. It is not a question, a phrase, or a dependent clause, but one sentence which expresses our controlling idea.
To sum up, we should avoid single subdivisions; avoid mixing sentences and phrases in an outline; make sure that subheads of the same rank (for example, A, B, and C) are of equal importance, are related to the headings I, II, and III, and are arranged in logical order; and always write the thesis in one complete sentence.
B. Writing the First Draft
C. Revising the First Draft
D. Making the Final Copy
2. Three Main Parts of a Composition
Most compositions are made up of a beginning, middle, and an end. We usually write one paragraph each for the beginning (the introduction) and the end (the conclusion), but for the middle (the body), often more paragraphs are needed.
A. The Beginning
B. The Middle
C. The End
3. Types of Writing
There are four main types of writing: narration, description, exposition, and argumentation. As narrative and expository writings are more often used in our daily life than the other two, we should first learn to write these two kinds of essay.
A. Narration
A narrative is an account of an event or a series of events. Narrative writing includes stories, biographies, histories, and news items.
B. Description
Description is painting a picture in words of a person, place, object, or scene.
A description essay is generally developed through sensory details, or the impressions of one’s senses-sight, hearing taste, smell, and touch. Not all details are useful. The writer should choose those that help to bring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and leave out those irrelevant ones, which, if included, would only distract the reader’s attention from the main impression the writer wishes to give.
① Description of a person
In describing a person, the writer should not merely give details of his appearance. He should try to reveal the person’s character, thoughts, and feelings, which may be shown in what the person does and says, or in how he behaves to others. And it is important to grasp the characteristic features that distinguish him from all other people. Those features that he shares with others can be omitted. Peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of a person if any, should be included in the description, for they usually impress the reader deeply and give life to the person described.
② Description of a place
③ Description of an object
④ Description of a scene
C. Exposition
Exposition means explaining. An expository paper explains something, such as how something is made, why something has happened, in what ways two persons or things are similar or different and so on. In a narrative paper of a historical event, we tell what happened, when and where it happened, and who took part in it. In an expository paper, we discuss its cause and effect, its nature, and its significance in history. Expository papers are perhaps the type of writing that is most frequently used by a student, a scientist, or a professional.
Things can be explained in many ways, for instance, by process, illustration, classification and/or division, comparison and/or contrast, or an analysis of their causes and/or effects. That is to say, methods that we have learned for paragraph development are also good for expository essays. In a paragraph we can often make a point in one or two sentences, but in an essay we may need one or two paragraphs to make a point clear.
D. Argumentation
The purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpose of argumentation, on the other hand, is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes. Speeches on policies, editorials of newspapers, articles on political or theoretical questions, and various proposals are often argumentative.
Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration, and above all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely related-argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.
Although they can take different shapes, argumentative essays have certain basic features in common. If you wish to write a good argumentative essay, you should do your best to meet the following requirements:
①A debatable point
It is imperative that the paper should have a debatable point, that is, something that can be viewed from more than one angle and is therefore open to dispute. Generally speaking, the following are not good themes.
(1) Mere statements of facts
“Chinese doctorsuseacupuncture anesthesia to perform certain operations” is a fact that cannot be debated. But if it is changed into “acupuncture anesthesia should replace conventional anesthesia in all operations”, it becomes debatable.
(2) Statements of personal preference
“Ba Jin is my favorite author” expresses personal preference, which does not lead to dispute. But a statement like “Ba Jin is the greatest Chinese writer of the 20th century” is disputable and sufficient evidence should be provided.
(3) Viewpoints that are generally accepted or can be easily verified
It is universally known that “noise pollution is harmful to people’s health”, but it is not generally accepted that “noise pollution is the most harmful of all environmental pollution”. The former viewpoint can be proved, but the later is arguable.
② Sufficient evidence
Since the point of your paper is not a fact, a statement of personal taste, or a viewpoint universally accepted, you would have to provide sufficient evidence to convince the reader. Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific examples; hard, not soft, evidence, or facts, not opinions, unless the opinions are expert and authoritative; statistics; and quotations from authorities. Valid evidence is that which is clearly and directly connected with the point to be proved.
③ Good logic
It is obvious that good logic is even more important to argumentation than to any other types of writing. All the facts and reasons that are given, as evidence should be logically connected with the conclusion and with each other. Any fallacy in logic or wrong step in reasoning would leave the reader in doubt about the whole argument.
There are generally two ways of reasoning:
(1)Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the more common way. When you use induction, you start with facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.
(2)Deductive reasoning
The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning --- it moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion. It works on the model of syllogism --- a three-part argument in which there is two statements, known as the major premise and the minor premise, and a conclusion.
Here is an example of a syllogism:
A. All human beings make mistakes.
B. X is a human being.
C.Therefore, X makes mistakes.
From the above example we can see that the major premise must be an accepted generalization, and the minor, a factual example of that generalization. If A and B are true, C the conclusion is bound to be true.
You must be very careful about your premises, especially your major premise. Such statements as “all students love to study” and “women are more imaginative than men” are not generally accepted, and therefore cannot be used as major premises.
④ Clear logic
A typical argumentative essay consists of three parts: an introduction that identifies the issue to be discussed and explains the importance of such a discussion; a body that presents the evidence; and a conclusion in which the proposition, if it is stated at the beginning, is reaffirmed.
In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views. Then in each paragraph that follows, you add something new and important to your argument. The evidence you provide should be arranged:
A. from the least to the most important,
B. from the most familiar to the least familiar,
C. from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult.
⑤ Good use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration, and especially the various methods of exposition.
⑥ An honest and friendly attitude
To argue is not to quarrel. The force of an argument does not come from abuse, sarcasm, exaggeration, or fierce attacks, but from solid evidence, logical reasoning, and careful analysis. A domineering or hostile tone could only raise doubts about your good faith and impairs the credibility of your argument, whereas an honest and friendly attitude will help win the trust of your readers.
Take care that you neither overstate or understate, and avoid overuse of such words and phrases as “perhaps”, “maybe”, “sometimes”, “most often”, “nearly always”, “I think”, or “in my opinion”, which invariably weaken the force of your argument.
Life Can Be Happy and Meaningful
Not long ago, a poll was conducted among students in a middle school. They were asked to make a choice between these two sentences --- “No one can be happy”, and “One can be happy.” Shockingly enough, about 20 percent of the students agreed to the first statement. When I asked some of my friends for their opinions, most of them thought the former statement were true. When asked for explanations, they said, “Frankly speaking, life is bitter and meaningless. But to live on, we’d better say to ourselves that there is happiness in life.”
I have been thinking of this question ever since. The more I think, the more I am convinced that if we have a right attitude towards life, our lives can surely be happy and meaningful.
It is true that all people have some bitter experiences. But it is through overcoming hardships that our happiness emerges. Many people admire Madam Curie, and say with a sigh, “If I could live like her, I would be the happiest person in the world.” But if we take a close look at her life, we will find her happiness is closely connected with her misfortunes. First of all, she did not have a happy childhood. When she was in France, she studies twice as hard as others but lived a poor and simple life. In her research work, she had to sit up late night after night. She experienced many losses, too, she lost her beloved father, her dear husband, and later her eyesight. But she never complained and never stopped working for the benefit of mankind. That is why her life was happy and meaningful. She fought against life’s bitterness and difficulties and conquered them all.
Some people complain that their work is insignificant and thus their lives are meaningless. But what kind of work is significant? Workers, peasants, teachers, and scientists, they are all working for the welfare of mankind, they included. That is where the meaning of life lies. But some people seem to think little of such a life. Once a friend of mine told me he felt very wretched for having to work as a teacher. “Our lives can be compared to candles. While giving light to others, we ourselves are burning out. Our students may become famous one day, but what will become of us? We shall only remain what we are fameless and wealthless.” Paradoxically, I would rather think he was giving a vivid description of the nobleness of a teacher. If I can live the life of a teacher, to contribute the only thing I own my knowledge to the upbringing of young people, I will be very happy, because I am useful to others.
Different people may think of life differently. But of one thing I am certain: happiness never favors those who merely care about themselves, and the meaning of life cannot be understood by those who refuse to sacrifice anything for others.
Part VI Practical Writing 应用文写作
1. Notice布告
2. Greetings, Good Wishes, Congratulations and Condolences 打招呼、祝愿、贺词、吊唁
3. Notes便条
4. Letters书信
5. Curriculum Vitae 履历表
本部分重点是书信和履历表。
Part VII Punctuation
1. The Comma 逗号(本部分重点和难点)
2. The Period 句号
3. The Semicolon 分号
4. The Colon 冒号
5. The Question Mark 问号
6. The Exclamation Mark 感叹号
7. Quotation Marks 引号
8. Parentheses 圆括号 ( )
9. Brackets方括号[ ]
10. The Slash斜杆/
11. Italics and Underlining 斜体和下划线